2 The Academic Characteristics of NTSS in China
A diachronic study of the literature shows that NTSS in China presents some features in the path of evolution,basic contents,genres,driving factors,and institutionalization.Please refer to Table 3 for more details.
Table 3 The Academic Characteristics of NTSS in China
2.1 Genesis and the Path of Evolution
First,it is generally acknowledged that the idea and concept of “non-traditional security” has its origin in extensive areas of study in the West,including international relations (IR),international security (IS) and international politics and economy (IPE)[48].In his translation and introduction of The Evolution of International Security Studies by Barry Buzan,Yu Xiaofeng wrote: NTSS stems from seven widening-deepening schools in international security studies,including constructivism and critical security studies,which focus on non-military topics.Lene Hansen regards these seven schools as the source of basic theories and methodology for NTSS,while Yu Xiaofeng considers them to be the seven perspectives or approaches in NTSS[49].
Chinese scholars,on the other hand,have also probed into the theories of international relations,and laid the academic foundation for NTSS in China by advancing their own propositions,examples of which include Zhao Tingyang’s “neo-cosmopolitism”,Yan Xuetong’s “ethical realism”,Qin Yaqing’s “relational theory of world politics”,and Wang Yizhou’s “creative involvement”[50].Development studies and studies in human emancipation,social justice,and risk society in the fields of (international) economics,politics and sociology have also greatly boosted the development of NTSS.
But it must be pointed out that studies in IR,IS,and IPE in the West have hardly been conducted directly under the “subject” of non-traditional security,and they usually cope with specific topics.Therefore,NTSS in the West is more like ideas of “non-traditional security” being discussed in the study of specific topics.Meanwhile,as the international discourse shapes and creates the consciousness and methodology of NTSS in China,Chinese scholars must also be alert to the position where the self-fulfilled local academic community is isolated from the rest of the world,without even knowing that their own knowledge or theories are standing as obstacles in the way to communications and understanding between the country and the rest of the world.
Second,localization is the process where Chinese scholars borrowed the concept of “non-traditional security” and made explorations in the subject.The first use of the term may be traced to Wang Yong’s article “On the Influence of Interdependence on Our National Security”,published in 1994 in World Economics & Politics[51].Given the great influence of IR,IS and IPE in the academia in China,it is only natural that NTSS,from the very beginning,borrowed the key concepts,topic domain,methodology and logical thinking from these areas,which is manifested by the fact that scholars,for a time,mostly studied issues of non-traditional security through approaches of international relations,international security or global governance.Then as Chinese scholars grew more independent in observing the reality of non-traditional security in China,they brought more Chinese elements into NTSS,and started to seek solutions from traditional Chinese culture.
In terms of topics,scholars also grew more aware of the “Chinese reality” and elevated public issues that emerged in the process of reforms and opening-up to security issues; in terms of philosophical guidance,they also ventured,after rational reflections,beyond the theoretical assumption and logical proposition where security studies are based in the Western reality,Western values and Western superiority,and began their search for philosophical guidance in traditional Chinese culture.Yu Xiaofeng,based on the idea of “peace-cooperationism”,has constructed the “China Vision” of non-traditional security featured by “superior coexistence” and “shared security”; Yan Xuetong proposed “ethical realism” in the area of international relations; Zhao Tingyang advanced the notion of “neo-cosmopolitism”,Jin Yingzhong “international symbiosis”,and Qin Yaqing “relationship governance”.All these represent an outlook of non-traditional security imbued with traditional Chinese culture and directly different from the Western approach.
Third,globalization.Paced with China’s involvement in global governance,Chinese scholars applied,with consciousness and confidence,the concept and discourse of non-traditional security characterized by the Chinese traditions of “peace/harmony”,“cooperation”,“security” and “people first” in their communications with their foreign counterparts.And while their academic propositions are publicized to the world,their suggestions are also accepted in China’s diplomatic policies and global governance.
In recent years,Chinese government officials,scholars,and members of the business and other communities have all reiterated the ideas of “sharing”,“new type of international relations”,and “community of shared future for mankind” on numerous important international occasions,i.e.the Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA) ,the G20 Summit, the UN Climate Change Conference,Nuclear Security Summit,Davos Forum,arms control conferences,and UNGA,and their strongly Chinese flavored suggestions have been increasingly recognized and followed in the world[52].This is a revelation that the China Perspective,China Discourse,and the Chinese culture in the area of non-traditional security are being more acknowledged in the world arena,while providing effective discourse tools and flexible communicating space,it has also greatly enhanced the understanding of the Chinese ideas and elevated the image of China as a player of peaceful development.
2.2 Rich Diversity in Contents
The contents of Chinese studies very clearly center around several “focuses”,which mainly concern the definitions,connotations,and features of “non-traditional security”,the basic issues in this field,types of specific issues to be studied,theories and schools of thought,interdisciplinary methods,and the idea of a “China School”.
2.2.1 Clearer Key Definitions
As is known,definition is the basic unit of academic research.Therefore,it is important to have an accurate comprehension of the key term “non-traditional security” in order to explore the field further.The academia in China has approached this mission from three aspects —definition,connotations and main features.
First,when the term of “non-traditional security” was first introduced into China,it was tagged as a “revolution”,part of “regular security studies”,or a “trap” by different scholars in the country[53].The “revolution” notion was mainly advanced by Yu Xiaofeng,Zhang Yunling,Wang Yizhou and He Zhongyi,who held that it provides an all-new thinking or paradigm in response to new security challenges.The “regular” faction,headed by Zhu Feng and Zha Daojiong,maintained that non-traditional security is only a derivative of the security concept and refers to issues excluded in the traditional security research.The “trap” notion,proposed by Meng Xiansheng and Ye Zhiqiu,believed that the idea of non-traditional security would undermine the national key interests,and represents “either ignorance or a lie” or is just not an issue at all.
However,as discussions on the concept of non-traditional security have almost come to an end,its definitions,connotations and significance for reality in the world are generally acknowledged,and NTSS has become a set of discourse shared by the academia and the policy-makers,providing a new domain of topics and solutions to governance.
Second,due to the diverse connotations of non-traditional security,NTSS was challenged for its borders.Generally speaking,the key connotations of non-traditional security fall into two categories.One highlights its “non-military” nature in comparison with “traditional security”,and stresses the “non-war”,“non-military” and “non-state-centered” side of the issues of non-traditional security[54].This category more often refers to low-political issues that are directly related to “humans” and the academic circle generally believe that concepts similar to “non-traditional security” are “non-military security” and “unconventional security”,and “human security” is the core of this segment.The other category refers to “new” security,the kind that is “not traditional”,and covers all the thinking,topics and policies that are “different from the traditional”; it advocates “superior co-existence” instead of “dangerous confrontations”[55],and represents a type of “new security”,“system security”,or “comprehensive security”[56].
Third,the academic circle has generally recognized the comprehensive,abrupt,transformative,cross-border and complex nature of the problems of non-traditional security.In addition,even when the concept of non-traditional security was first borrowed,they held that non-traditional security is closely intertwined and mutually transformable with traditional security and therefore the former is not developed to replace or dispute the latter[57]; rather,they form the contents of core national interests together.Scholars also call for more attention to non-traditional security issues when traditional security problems remain central on the agenda of national security,and appeal to the academia to seek non-traditional security solutions to both domestic and foreign issues that are considered to belong to the domain of traditional security.NTSS also aims to establish the idea of “comprehensive security”,where traditional and non-traditional security is coordinated,and the idea of “overall national security”,which is based on the thinking of non-traditional security[58].
2.2.2 Consensus on Basic Problems
Problems are at the core of all scientific activities.So what are the basic problems in NTSS? In his translation of The Evolution of International Security Studies,Yu Xiaofeng generalized the analytical methods of the five major problems in IS and applied them in NTSS.Yu believes NTSS should try to answer the following problems: Whose security? Who or what threatens security? Who guarantees security? And how? And what are the epistemology and methodology?[59]
“Whose security” refers to the identification and convertibility of the security referent object.In traditional security studies,or TSS,the state is usually taken as the referent object,while in NTSS,humans as well as regions,and even the whole world could all be covered; and subsistence and development security are targeted rather than military and political security.
The question of “who or what threatens security” deals with the identification,convertibility and expansion of the object of security studies.TSS generally regards foreign and sudden military threats as the fundamental threats to (national) security,but NTSS maintains that economic,political,energetic,scientific and technological and cultural factors both home and abroad may threaten security.
“Who guarantees security” is a question aiming to identify and expand the subject of security maintenance.While TSS believes the state is the most effective subject,NTSS holds different views.On the one hand,states do not always act as the guardian of security,they may even become the initiator of insecurity,like the “failed states”,which lack the capacity for security,or the authoritarian states that pose “structural violence” in themselves.On the other hand,non-state actors are playing a more prominent role in safeguarding security in specific areas.
“How to guarantee security” means how to implement security measures.While TSS emphasizes confrontations,attacks and zero-sum games,NTSS advocates cooperation,dialogue and win-win results on the basis of “converging interests”[60].
The epistemology and methodology part is more about the observance of knowledge,methods and theories.TSS is more oriented towards substance,positivism,reason and the individual,but NTSS is more guided towards notions,discourse,institutions and humanity.
NTSS has conducted academic activities centering on these five basic questions,and gradually become an independent field of study with core categories,key issues,research methods and theories of its own.
2.2.3 Innovations in Topic Dimensions
How should the topics of NTSS be classified? On the dimension of the sphere of study,NTSS is composed of regular problems in politics,economy,the society and environmental security as well as new problems that concern cyberspace,the ocean,pole areas and energy; on the level dimension,NTSS covers a full spectrum of issues at global,regional,national and individual levels; examined on the dimension of capacity,NTSS is composed of research on the capacities of discourse,strategies,mechanism,social engagement,emergency management and international cooperation[61]; on the dimension of values,NTSS is mainly concerned with order,equity and justice; on the dimension of origin,the studies are comprised of research on the endogenous,exogenous,dual-source and multi-source nature of the field[62].
2.2.4 Contentions over Viewpoints
Yu Xiaofeng holds that in NTSS,there are eight prominent schools: the Copenhagen School,critical security studies,feminism,human security,post-colonialism,post-structuralism,constructivism,and peace-cooperationism.But Li Kaisheng complains that this way of classification is not only insubstantial but also confusing.Li claimed that only the Copenhagen School,critical approaches to security,human security and feminism really belong to this field as they tend to study the economy,the environment,human emancipation and women security; he went even further to invent the expression of quasi-traditional security theory to represent research that concern topics in the area covered by neither traditional security theories nor non-traditional ones[63].
Others disagree on the role of non-traditional security: some believe the introduction of this concept will spark a revolution; some others regard it as a trap that the academia should not fall into; while some scholars believe that this concept is nothing special in comparison to conventional security studies.There are also disputes over the topics and contents of non-traditional security as well as the validity of its Chinese equivalent[64].
2.2.5 Progressive Interdisciplinary Attempts
Results of national defense,military,intelligence and civil air defense studies have all been drawn upon in the research of “non-war military actions” and the multi-angle study of complex security issues that are entwined with both elements of traditional and non-traditional security[65]; in order to find a solution to issues concerning border areas,terrorism,immigration and religions,scholars are making efforts to borrow achievements from ethnology,frontier security studies,history and cultural studies; they have also integrated behavioral science,psychology and education science to study issues of ethnic identity,security education,criminal psychology and psychological health; attempts have also been made to set up models and conduct data analysis on the basis of computer science,data science,and econometrics[66].
2.2.6 Louder Voice from the “China School” in NTSS
Wei Zhijiang from the Sun Yat-sen University believes that with the development of NTSS in China and China’s peaceful rise,scholars should make efforts to build a “China School” based on their own theoretical paradigm and discourse.Wei also points out: the idea of “shared security” initiated and elaborated by Yu Xiaofeng,has its roots in Chinese history and philosophy,which emphasizes “supreme harmony” and “peace around the world”; the idea is also an embodiment of ancient Chinese political pursuit featured by benevolence and good neighborly relationship; in addition,it is also solidly grounded in China’s diplomatic practice which is guided by the principle of co-existence,broad participation,shared benefits.Therefore,Wei argued,the notion of “shared security”,directing to the positive goal of “security for mankind” in the age of globalization,represents the probe of the Chinese academia into the strategies of safeguarding non-traditional security and solutions for the crisis facing mankind,and should be regarded as the paradigm of the “China School”[67].
The fundamental difference between the Chinese and Western concepts of non-traditional security lies in the fact that the former is centered around “peace-cooperation” and “sharing”,advocating superior coexistence between actors,“mutually ensured security” and a shared future of humanity,while the latter adheres to dangerous confrontations and antagonism.Therefore,the Chinese concept has provided a solution to the problem of “heterogeneous conflicts”,which is an insoluble predicament in the Western concept,and represents an important theoretical innovation in NTSS with its “elevated” values and security outlook.
2.3 Distinct Categories/Genres
In 2005,Wang Yizhou proposed that NTSS in China is mainly broken down into two genres/categories: the technical faction,which only concern themselves with the academic effect of specific issues; and the institutional faction,which try to study the impact of security issues on the state and on social relations[68].However,this paper believes that given the progress in NTSS in China,a more elaborate distinction should be made.Please refer to Table 4 for the five main genres/categories in this field.
Table 4 The Five Main Genres/Categories of NTSS in China
The Category of Principle is the innovator of theories and producer of knowledge in NTSS,and generally creates concepts,clarifies ideas,expounds principles and explores methods of research.A search of CNKI shows that studies under this category take up 66.6% of all NTSS results.The Category of Topic Setting mainly identifies and analyzes the types and features of and weaknesses in non-traditional security studies and puts forth proposals; it often comes in the form of studies of the security topics.The Category of Policies is the one that focuses on the areas of strategy,laws,regulations,mechanism,and capacity in major issues of non-traditional security; it usually evaluates policies and advance proposals.The Category of Review is mainly involved in reviewing the academic results and policy documents of non-traditional security and discovering the laws and policy trends.Last but not least,the Category of Introduction translates,introduces and comments on the classics and frontier research in NTSS in other countries.The five categories overlap in some aspects.
In this paper,foundation-laying research mainly refers to the pioneering efforts in studying the key definitions,rules and principles and problems of non-traditional security and in contributing to the relevant measures of comprehensive governance.It also refers to the systematic introduction of relevant foreign studies or a comprehensive review of the thoughts and theories of NTSS.Important figures in China include Wang Yizhou,Xiong Guangkai,Yan Xuetong,Yu Xiaofeng,Zhu Feng,Lu Zhongwei,Zha Daojiong,Wang Yong,Fu Yong,Liu Yuejin,and Wei Zhijiang,etc.
Back in the early 1990s,Wang Yizhou,Xiong Guangkai,and Yan Xuetong suggested that more attention should be given to non-military issues or those that did not correlate with sovereignty.Wang Yong applied the term “non-traditional security” for the first time in his paper; Zhu Feng,Lu Zhongwei and Zha Daojiong were among the first to make systematic analysis of the definition and the development of non-traditional security,its relationship with traditional security,and the measures to implement non-traditional security strategies; Yu Xiaofeng not only innovated the notions by resorting to philosophy for NTSS,but also introduced the frontier research of foreign peers in this field; Fu Yong was among the first to present a systematic exposition on non-traditional security and China’s peaceful development; Liu Yuejin and Wei Zhijiang contributed respectively to the analysis of contemporary and modern government positions on non-traditional security and the ancient thoughts of shared security.
2.4 Diverse Driving Factors
This paper believes the five dynamic factors that drive NTSS forward are academic progress,technological advance,exigencies,policies,and international environment.
First,academic progress,or theoretical forces in the form of knowledge production,theoretical expansion and innovative methods.It is manifested in efforts to clarify definitions,viewpoints and theories; in efforts to study all the literature and delineate the path of academic evolution; in discussions to deepen understanding and reach consensus; in contentions with the purpose of making viewpoints clearer; in attempts to broaden contents and create new methods; and in setting up research platforms to facilitate progress of the disciplinary or a faction within it.To sum up,academic factors are the most natural and sustained driving force for the development of NTSS in China.
Second,technological advance.Technological improvements change the security reality and the means of security governance; they also have brought new objects and new methods of study into NTSS.In pace with the development in the Internet,nuclear,biological and chemical weapons (NBC),quantum mechanics,new energy sources,AI and GM techniques,new modes of security keep emerging in cyberspace,NBC and AI and quickly become new issues in the study of both theories and policies of non-traditional security; and technological breakthroughs in big data,policy simulation,data mining and literature analysis also create new methods in NTSS.
Third,exigencies.A risk continues to build until it reaches the point of eruption where it becomes an emergency,which in turn,will cause reflections.Air and water pollutions in cities,waste landfill,and group conflicts in everyday life have grown severe and aroused continuous interest of the academia in issues of ecological environment,health,safety and social stability,while critical emergencies like SARS,the Ebola virus,the missing Malaysian jetliner,Snowden,terrorist attacks in Paris,and overseas evacuation mission all triggered extensive discussions on new types of security issues including public health,accidents over the sea,air crashes,cyberspace,information,counter-terrorism and overseas security measures.
Fourth,policies.Government policies,especially those of the central government,often dictate the direction of NTSS and set the “major” and “frontier” topics of study.They also tend to predetermine the purposes and contents of such studies.Typical examples of research on policies include: analysis of the contents of policies on domestic and foreign affairs; evaluation of policies and suggestions for policy planning; review and analysis of documents aimed at a better understanding of the changes in the guiding policies; and research and judgment of specific issues for the purpose of policy planning.Dictated by policies,NTSS is more practical and strategically important.
Fifth,global (or regional) environment.Global and regional political,economic and security environment is a guiding element in the setting and change of topics in NTSS.Changes in finance,stock markets and exchange rates in a region or in the world,terrorism,violence,conflicts,ethnic and religious troubles,climate change,energy,the Internet,diseases,and poverty,etc.,have all boosted the growth of NTSS.
2.5 Institutionalization of NTSS
NTSS was initially isolated but has gradually grown institutionalized,with numerous research institutes and an academic network,training talent,spreading knowledge,and providing policy consultations.This has greatly facilitated and sustained the theoretical innovations,the buildup of the knowledge,and the conversion of academic results.Therefore,the level of institutionalization has become an important measure of NTSS development.
First,research institutes.Typical ones include the following: Center for Non-Traditional Security and Peaceful Development Studies,Zhejiang University (NTS-PD),which stresses the interdisciplinary research in non-traditional security studies (actually the Center has set up a sub-center in the Party School of the Shaoxing Municipal Committee of the CPC and a research station in Tarim University); Center of Non-Traditional Security Studies of Huazhong University of Science and Technology,a key player in quantitative research of security risks; Research Academy of Non-Traditional Security and Frontier Nation Development,Tarim University,focuses its research on ethnic relations and border security; Research Center of Non-Traditional Security in ASEAN,Zhejiang Police College,lays stress on studies of joint governance of non-traditional security between China and ASEAN.While these institutions are increasing to become think tanks,new ones have also been founded.In addition,supportive agencies,i.e.,funds,publishing houses,and talent-fostering and -recruitment projects,have also been created.These institutions have provided valuable support for the further development of the theories and methods in this subject.
Second,student training.This mainly involves the discipline construction,the establishment relevant programs,courses,degrees and compilation of textbooks.For example,Zhejiang University offers the course of “Introduction to Non-Traditional Security” for candidates of master and doctoral degrees and “Management of Non-Traditional Security” as a general course for undergraduates; the university is also operating a Ph.D program in the subordinate discipline of “Non-traditional Security” and one for Master’s degree.Sun Yat-Sen University,Peking University,China Foreign Affairs University,University of International Relations,and Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics have all started courses on non-traditional security.And in 2015,scholars from 15 universities in China collaborated and published the second edition of the textbook of Introduction to Non-Traditional Security.University graduates with the knowledge of non-traditional security are now found working in all sectors.
Third,knowledge dissemination.This mainly refers to various publications (monographs,journal papers,book series,blue papers and columns),online resources (monographic websites,WeChat accounts,audios,and videos),team communications,media reports,public speeches,and cooperation with other fields and sectors.The spread of NTSS has provided a favorable environment for idea,knowledge and emotional exchanges needed by the academic community.
Fourth,policy consultancy.This is mainly completed in the form of research projects supported by funds of different levels.According to a search of CNKI made by the author on April 10,2018,projects of non-traditional security supported by national funds alone amounted to 186 during the period from 1978 to 2017[69].
Fifth,academic network.Researchers have formed a community network aimed at knowledge production and exchange.Various collaborative innovation centers,seminars,forums,research collaboration,debates,and personnel exchanges have already formed communities of shared thoughts.